Mega-Constellation Regulatory Challenges: Spectrum, Debris, and Liability

The deployment of satellite mega-constellations (systems comprising hundreds to thousands of individual satellites) represents a qualitative shift in the nature of space operations, and one that existing regulatory frameworks were not designed to accommodate. The International Telecommunication Union's spectrum coordination processes, the FCC's satellite licensing regime, national orbital debris mitigation guidelines, and the international liability framework embodied in the 1972 Liability Convention are all under stress. How regulators, operators, and international bodies respond to these challenges will substantially shape the future of the orbital environment.

Spectrum: Finite Resource, Growing Demand

Radio frequency spectrum is a finite natural resource managed internationally through the ITU. The ITU's Radio Regulations establish the process by which satellite operators file for spectrum and orbital coordination, with priority generally given to operators who file first and coordinate successfully with existing users. The process was designed for a world of tens to hundreds of GEO satellites, not thousands of LEO spacecraft across dozens of operators.

Key spectrum challenges include:

• Ku- and Ka-band congestion: The most commercially attractive frequency bands for broadband satellite internet, Ku-band (12–18 GHz) and Ka-band (26.5–40 GHz), are being contested by multiple large constellation operators simultaneously. SpaceX Starlink, Amazon Kuiper, Telesat Lightspeed, and OneWeb (Eutelsat) are all seeking to operate in overlapping spectrum, creating interference coordination obligations that are unprecedented in scale.
• V-band and E-band filings: Operators have filed for large amounts of V-band (40–75 GHz) spectrum as a hedge, though this band presents greater propagation challenges. The volume of filings has raised concerns at the ITU about "spectrum warehousing": filing for more spectrum than can realistically be used in order to block competitors.
• Milestone requirements: The FCC has imposed deployment milestone requirements on constellation licensees, requiring operators to deploy a specified percentage of their constellation within a defined number of years, to prevent spectrum hoarding by operators who file but do not deploy.
• Interference with radio astronomy: The International Astronomical Union and radio astronomy operators have raised concerns about interference from broadband satellite constellations, particularly in frequency bands adjacent to protected radio astronomy bands.

Orbital Debris: The Accumulating Risk

Mega-constellations substantially increase the number of objects in LEO, raising legitimate concerns about the long-term sustainability of the orbital environment. The key debris-related regulatory tensions include:

• Post-mission disposal timelines: The traditional guideline, the "25-year rule", requires satellites in LEO to deorbit within 25 years of end-of-life. The FCC proposed tightening this to 5 years for new satellite systems, and in 2022 adopted a 5-year deorbit rule for satellites operating below 2,000 km. This requires either sufficient propellant for a controlled deorbit or operation at altitudes where atmospheric drag will cause natural reentry within 5 years.
• Casualty risk on reentry: Large constellations mean a large number of satellites reentering the atmosphere, some as planned disposals and others as anomalous reentries. The demisability of satellite components (whether they burn up completely or produce surviving debris that reaches the ground) is subject to increasing regulatory scrutiny. Casualty risk thresholds of 1 in 10,000 per reentry event are standard in major licensing jurisdictions.
• Conjunction rate increase: More satellites in the same orbital altitude bands mean more conjunctions, more collision avoidance maneuvers, and a higher probability of actual collisions generating new debris. This is the core concern of the Kessler Syndrome: a cascade in which collisions generate debris that causes more collisions.
• Coordination of maneuver plans: Currently there is no internationally standardized system for operators to coordinate maneuver plans to avoid creating new conjunctions when resolving existing ones.

Liability: An Outdated Framework

The 1972 Liability Convention establishes that launching states bear absolute liability for damage caused by their space objects on Earth's surface and fault-based liability for damage in outer space. In an era of mega-constellations with hundreds of satellites from a single operator licensed under a single national authority, this framework creates scenarios of potentially enormous liability exposure that may not be adequately backed by financial responsibility requirements.

• Operator financial responsibility: The FAA requires launch operators to carry third-party liability insurance covering the maximum probable loss from a launch accident. For satellite operations, financial responsibility requirements vary by jurisdiction and are not always calibrated to the scale of potential liability from a constellation-sized debris-generating event.
• The Starlink-OneWeb conjunction of 2021: A publicly reported close approach between Starlink satellites and a OneWeb satellite highlighted the gaps in coordination between operators and the potential for commercially significant disputes over liability for avoidance maneuvering costs and disruption.
• Non-state actor complexity: The Outer Space Treaty's provision that states bear responsibility for activities of their nationals creates complex liability chains when commercial operators span multiple jurisdictions, use multiple launch providers, and operate satellites registered in multiple countries.

The Path Forward

Regulatory modernization is occurring incrementally across all three dimensions. The FCC's 5-year deorbit rule, the ITU's updated NGSO coordination provisions, and evolving national licensing requirements are all steps in the right direction, but the pace of regulatory adaptation continues to lag the pace of commercial deployment.

The most likely near-term developments include increased operator self-coordination through industry bodies, continued FCC and ITU rulemaking on spectrum efficiency and debris mitigation, and national licensing authorities adding more prescriptive technical requirements as a condition of authorization. Binding international agreement on STM and liability modernization remains a longer-term prospect, dependent on diplomatic progress that has proved elusive.

Stay current on regulatory filings, FCC proceedings, and compliance requirements relevant to satellite operations through the SpaceNexus regulatory compliance module, and track spectrum coordination developments in our market intelligence platform.